“It is better to prevent crimes than to punish them.” - Cesare Beccaria
Fig. 1. Cesare Beccaria. Undated portrait engraving.
Cesare Beccaria (Britannica School) - Database article covering Beccaria's life, historical events that impacted his writings, and his influence on law today; click on "Reading Level 3" for a more detailed text.
Beccaria, Cesare (1738–1794) (The Greenhaven Encyclopedia of Capital Punishment) - Database article discusses historical context of the day and how it influenced Beccaria's writings.
Cesare Beccaria (Biography.com) - Webpage provides biographical information, including his essential theories on criminal justice.
"A prince never lacks legitimate reasons to break his promise." - Niccolo Machiavelli
Fig. 2. Santi di Tito, Niccolo Machiavelli, 16th century.
Niccolo Machiavelli (Britannica School) - Biographical database article covering Machiavelli's life, career, writings, and legacy; click on "Reading Level 3" for a more detailed text.
Machiavelli, Niccolò (Encyclopedia of Science, Technology, and Ethics) - Database article highlighting Machiavelli's contribution to political thought.
Niccolò Machiavelli (Great Thinkers) - All inclusive webpage includes biographical information and discusses Machiavelli's political philosophy and writings in depth; click on "Biography" to read the whole biography and "Introduction" to learn about his political philosophy.
Niccolo Machiavelli (Biography.com) - Webpage shares a brief biography of Niccolo Machiavelli.
"True knowledge exists in knowing that you know nothing." - Socrates
Fig. 3. Marble bust of Socrates.
Socrates (Britannica School) - Database article on the life and philosophy of Socrates; click on "Reading Level 3" for a more detailed text.
Socrates (ca. 469 B.C.–399 B.C.) (The Greenhaven Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece) - Database article provides a general overview of Socrates and his relationships and influence on other philosophers of the age.
Socrates (World History Encyclopedia) - Webpage discusses Socrates' personal background, career, and influence; includes timeline of his life.
Socrates (Biography.com) - Webpage covers Socrates life, philosophy, and the political climate at the time.
“One of the penalties for refusing to participate in politics is that you end up being governed by your inferiors.”
- Plato
Fig. 4. Plato shown as a typical philosopher.
Plato (Britannica School) - Database article that provides a comprehensive picture on the life, writings, and philosophy of Plato; click on "Reading Level 3" for a more detailed text.
Plato (427-348 B.C.E.) (Encyclopedia of Children and Childhood: In History and Society) - Database article focuses primarily on Plato's philosophies regarding various aspects of his life.
Plato (World History Encyclopedia) - Webpage includes information about Plato's background, writings, philosophy, and legacy; source also includes a timeline of Plato's life.
Plato (Biography.com) - Webpage provides overview of Plato's life and impact on philosophy.
